Introduction
Approximately 10 million tons of bisphenol A (BPA) are produced annually worldwide to fulfill the demands of the polymer industry (Michalowicz, 2014). Meanwhile, BPA has received significant attention from consumers and researchers owing to its widespread exposure and potential adverse effects (Vandenberg et al., 2007). BPA can interact with hormone receptors and is considered an endocrine-disrupting chemical (EDC) (Fenichel et al., 2013). BPA also affects immunity, the cardiovascular and nervous systems, and neurodevelopment through diverse mechanisms (Efsa Panel on Food Contact Materials et al., 2023, Hyun et al., 2021, Kimber, 2017, Welch and Mulligan, 2022). Despite its rapid elimination, the general population is continuously exposed to BPA, primarily through food consumption (Govarts et al., 2023). BPA leaches from BPA-based materials, such as polycarbonate food containers or epoxy-coated metals, and, consequently, these products lose consumer preference due to safety concerns, especially baby food contact products (Manzoor et al., 2022).
BPA can bind primarily to estrogen receptors, interfering with various neurologic functions, making its use a topic of significant concern (Costa and Cairrao, 2024). Embryos, fetuses, and babies are susceptible to the detrimental effects of BPA, as their capacity to eliminate BPA is not yet fully developed. In many countries, BPA usage in baby food packaging is restricted based on precautionary principles (e.g., Europe) or abandoned by manufacturers because of consumer pressure (e.g., the USA). However, this population is exposed to BPA via maternal exposure because BPA readily crosses both the blood-placental and blood-brain barriers and is eliminated by breast milk (Desai et al., 2018). Furthermore, chemical exposure during organ development can result in morphological malformations or epigenetic modulation, which can have lifelong effects (Baccarelli and Bollati, 2009). Structural brain abnormalities contribute to neurodevelopmental disorders in children, including attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD)(Mizuno et al., 2019). Here, we provide an overview of the neurological and neurodevelopmental effects of BPA. First, we explored human epidemiological studies that focused on the association between BPA levels in human samples and neurodevelopmental disorder symptoms in children. Next, we described the recent in-vitro and animal studies that have provided a more detailed understanding of the effects of BPA on the brain.