Food and Nutrition: Macronutrients and Micronutrients microbiologystudy

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  • Food is an edible material or substance we eat to fulfill our daily requirements.
  • Food contains nutrients such as carbohydrates, fat, protein, vitamins, minerals, iron, and water, essential to our body.
  •  It provides nutrition to our human body for growth, repair, development, maintenance, and mechanism.

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What is Nutrition?

  • Antoine Lavoisier (France, 1743-1794)- known as the father of chemistry and nutrition- discovered nutrition.
  • The study of nutrients in food is called nutrition, which the body uses. 
  • Moreover, It is the process of consuming, absorbing, and using nutrients from food. 
  • According to the Collins dictionary, nutrition means- “the process of taking food into the body and absorbing the nutrients in those foods.”
  • Nutrition is a study of the interaction between living organisms and food.
  • Proper maintenance of nutrition of natural foods in the diet helps to keep your life healthy and functioning. 
  • If people do not consume a proper diet, then it may lead to many diseases, such as heart disease, cancer, depression, stomach pain, cognitive decline, and so on.
  • USDA recommends adults eat less than 300 milligrams (mg) per day of cholesterol for a healthy life. Good nutrition includes many natural foods. 

Functions of Food and Nutrition

  1. Good nutrition helps to provide raw materials and energy.
  2. Good nutrition leads to a healthy life.
  3. It prevents our body from infection.
  4. It helps in the body repair, development, and maintenance.
  5. Social and psychological functions of food
  6. It helps regulate many body functions, such as metabolism, sweating, and temperature.
  7. It helps to regulate chemical processes in the body.
  8. It helps to maintain homeostasis.
  9. It promotes the physical and mental growth of human beings
  10. It helps to build and repair damaged cell and tissue
Food and Nutrition
Food and Nutrition

Factors affecting food and nutrition (Individual)

  1. Gender
  2. Genetics
  3. Nutritional habits
  4. Growth/ Development
  5. Food quality
  6. Food quantity
  7. Experience
  8. Efficiency of our digestive system
  9. Personal preferences
  10. Biochemical availability
  11. Nutritional requirements
  12. Education
  13. Disease
  14. Family
  15. Status of women
  16. Deficiency of nutrients
  17. Disease
  18. Health
  19. The activity level of the person
  20. Addiction habit 

Classification of Foods

Foods are classified based on origin, chemical composition, predominant function, and sources.

Classification of foods by origin

  • Foods of animal origin
  • Foods of vegetable origin

Classification of foods by chemical composition

  • Protein, fats, carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals

Classification of foods by predominant functions

  • Body-building foods are meat, milk, poultry, fish, groundnuts, eggs, pulses, etc. 
  • Energy-providing foods such as cereals, sugars, tubers, fats, oils, etc.
  • Protective foods (repairing and maintenance) such as vegetables, fruits, milk, etc.

Classification of foods by sources

  • Cereals, millets, legumes (pulses), green vegetables, fruits, meat, fish, eggs, milk, fats and oils, nuts and oil seeds, sugar, jaggery (a natural sweetener), condiments, and species

Classification of Nutrients

Nutrients are classified based on energy yield, how much they require in the body, and carbon structure.

The Energy Yielding

  • Protein: 4kcal/lg
  • Fat: 9kcal/lg
  • Carbohydrate: 4kcal/lg

How much they needed in the body

  • Macronutrients: Amounts required in kg or g
  • Micronutrients: Amounts required in milligrams (1mg=1/1000gr) or micrograms

Carbon structure

  • Organics: Carbohydrates, fat, protein, vitamins
  • Inorganic: Minerals and water

What are Nutrients?

The organic and inorganic complexes present in food are called nutrients. 

Nutrients play a crucial role in the functioning of our body. Foods provide 50 different nutrients to our body. 

Each nutrient has its specific roles and functions. The nutrients in food are:

Macronutrients (energy producing)

  1. Carbohydrate
  2. Protein
  3. Fats
  4. Water

Micronutrients (protective)

  1. Minerals
  2. Vitamins
  • The word macro means big. 
  • Human requires macronutrients in large quantities. 
  • Each macronutrient has its specific pathways and functions.
  •  It provides energy to our bodies. 
  • The total energy intake of macronutrients are carbohydrates (60-80 %), fats (10-30 %), and proteins (7-15 %).

Carbohydrates

  • Carbohydrate, the most abundant organic substances, is mainly composed of molecules containing atoms of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) and have the general formula of C6H12O6. 
  • The source of energy is the carbon atom. It oxidizes fats and synthesizes non-essential amino acids.
  • It is a component of fruits and vegetables. 
  • They form from green plants or plant foods during the photosynthesis process. It serves as an energy source. 
  • Examples are Fruits, Vegetables, Milk, Nuts, Grains, Seeds, Beans, peas, and lentils.
  • There are four major groups of carbohydrates. They are:
  1. Monosaccharides: Fructose, Glucose, Arabinose, Xylose
  2. Disaccharides: Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose
  3. Oligosaccharides: Trisachharide, Raffinose, Tetrasachharide Stachyose 
  4. Polysaccharides: Starch, Glycogen, Cellulose, Hemicellulose

Types of Carbohydrate

There are three types of carbohydrates:

  1. Sugar
  2. Starch
  3. Fiber

1. Sugar

  • Sugar is the simplest type of carbohydrate that provides energy rapidly. 
  • Our body quickly breaks down into glucose and absorbs simple carbohydrates, which results in the fluctuation of blood sugar levels. 
  • Glucose is the crucial energy source for our body’s cells, tissues, and organs.
  • Examples are white sugar, honey, glucose, agave nectar, cane syrup or corn syrup, molasses, etc.

There are two types of sugars:

a. Naturally occurring sugars: Milk and fresh fruits

b. Added sugars: Sweets (cookies, candy bars, ice cream), canned fruit, juice and soda

  • According to the American Heart Association, people assigned female at birth (AFAB) should not consume more than 25 g (6 teaspoons or 100 calories) per day of added sugar.
  • Similarly, people assigned male at birth (AMAB) should not consume more than 36 g (9 teaspoons or 150 calories) per day of added sugar. 
  • So, It is necessary to maintain the consumption of sugars due to the risk of causing diseases such as type 2 diabetes. 
  • As a result, it keeps your health in a good state.

2. Starch

  • Starch (amylum), a natural component of plants, is a complex carbohydrate. It is a natural polymer consisting of a long chain of glucose molecules. 
  • The body breaks down the natural polymer into glucose- the energy source for the human body. 
  • There are two types: amylose and amylopectin. 
  • Amylose is a linear polymer, which is amorphous or solid. Amylopectin is a branched chain polymer, which is crystalline. 
  • It is present in many foods, such as grains, vegetables, and fruits (apples, berries, melons). 
  • Blood sugar remains stable because the body takes a long time to break down this complex carbohydrate. 
  • Examples are maize, tapioca, brown rice, oatmeal, roots, tubers, whole-wheat bread, pasta, corn, peas, wheat, potatoes, legumes, beans (black beans, chickpeas, lentils, lima, beans, and kidney beans), etc. 

3. Fiber

  • Fiber, a complex healthy carbohydrate or non-starch polysaccharide, does not break down glucose. 
  • Fiber can pass through the intestines and stimulate digestion. It is present in plant-based foods such as vegetables, fruits, and whole grains. 
  • According to the FDA (Food and Drug Administration), females should consume 28 grams (g) per day, whereas males should consume 34 grams.
  • They are of two types: soluble and insoluble. 
  • Soluble fibers can dissolve in water, whereas insoluble one cannot. It helps to regulate blood sugar levels, feeds good bacteria in the gut, helps slow digestion, softens stool, and lowers cholesterol. 
  • Examples of high-fiber foods are Beans and legumes (black beans, chickpeas, lentils, lima beans, peanuts, and pinto beans), fruits (apples, seeds, and peaches), nuts and seeds (almonds, walnuts, pumpkin seeds, and sunflower seeds), whole-grain products (almonds, walnuts, pumpkin seeds, and sunflower seeds), and vegetables (corn, broccoli, brussels sprouts and squash). 

Functions of Carbohydrate

  1. It provides energy to the body.
  2. It is essential for fat oxidation for energy production.
  3. It helps to grow helpful bacteria.
  4. It helps to synthesize the vitamin B complex.
  5. It stimulates intestinal motility and prevents constipation.
  6. It helps in the absorption of minerals.
  7. It has a role in the biosphere.
  8. It helps to provide nutrition to the human body.
  9. It helps to spare protein from burning for energy production.
  10. Soluble fibers decrease total serum cholesterol levels and enhance the body’s use of insulin in insulin resistance syndrome.
  11. Insoluble fibers absorb water 10-15 times their volume.

Disorder of excess intake of carbohydrate

  1. It can cause obesity.
  2. It can cause dental caries.
  3. It can increase insulin levels that may cause an increased tendency for blood clotting.

Proteins

  • Proteins, organic compounds, consist of amino acids having C, H, O, and N atoms. 
  • There are 20 amino acids in protein. It is fully digestible and utilizable by the body. 
  • It is also crucial for the human body because it provides nutrition. 
  • Moreover, it is necessary for building and repairing of body tissues. It supplies 4kcal/g energy.
  •  Depending upon age and sex, the RDA for protein is 35-56 g/day. During pregnancy and lactation, protein is 71 g/day.
  • There are two forms of amino acids: essential (must come from food) and non-essential (manufactured by our body).
  •  Essential amino acids are leucine, isoleucine, valine, histidine, and lysine. 
  • Examples are beans (black beans, lima beans), almonds, broccoli, Cauliflower, Chinese cabbage, Oats, Temeh, Spirulina, Hemp seeds, Sun-dried tomatoes, Guava, Artichokes, Peas, Chickpeas, Avocado, Pistachios, Chia seeds, Asparagus, Brussels sprouts, Spelt, Teff, chicken breast, dairy (cottage cheese, milk, and Greek yogurt), tofu, chicken, lentils, fish (salmon, Halibut), tuna, eggs, or meat (protein and fats), Quinoa, protein powders, Ezekiel bread, pumpkin seeds, turkey breast, Shellfish, peanuts, peanut butter, Bison, etc.

Types of Protein

There are two types of protein. They are Complete protein and Incomplete protein.

a. Complete protein:

  • Complete proteins are proteins that contain essential amino acids. 
  • Plant-based foods do not require complete protein. 
  • Examples are animal foods such as meat, fish, milk, and eggs.

b. Incomplete protein:

  • Incomplete proteins are proteins that contain all the essential and non-essential amino acids. 
  • Examples are vegetable foods such as cereals, legumes, and peanuts.

Functions of protein

  1. It helps to develop the body, growth, maintenance, and repair cells.
  2. It helps to form essential components such as hormones, enzymes, immune cells, immunoglobulins, and hemoglobin.
  3. It helps to regulate acid-base balance by controlling the movement of chemical ions in and out of the cells.
  4. It helps regulate the fluid movement of blood by controlling the osmotic pressure. 
  5. It produces energy (1 gram is equal to 4 kcals).
  6. It promotes a sense of fullness in the body that is best for diet.
  7. It helps to maintain muscle mass.

Deficiency of protein

  1. It can cause diseases like kwashiorkor (edema) and Marasmus (wasting), which leads to Marasmic kwashiorkor.
  2. Impaired immunity and more susceptibility to infections
  3. It can cause nutritional oedema.
  4. It can cause poor wound healing capacity.
  5. Muscle gets weak.
  6. It can cause apathy and depression.

Fats

Fats are triglycerides consisting of 3 fatty acids and one glycerol molecule (water-soluble carbohydrate). 

Males should consume 20-30 gm/day, while females should consume 20-40 gm/day. 

Sources of fats

  1. Animal source: Ghee, butter, fat of meat, fish oils, etc.
  2. Vegetable sources: Ground nut oil, ginger oil, mustard oil, cotton seed and nut oil, etc.

Types of fats

There are three types of fat. They are:

  1. Saturated fats
  2. Unsaturated fats
  3. Trans fats

1. Saturated fats

  • Saturated fats (solid at room temperature) are non-essential fatty acids, including butyric acid, palmitoleic and stearic acids. 
  • It is a nutrient from all animal foods, such as animal fats, coconut, and palm oils. 
  • But ingesting too much fat is harmful to our health. 
  • According to the American Heart Association, saturated fat consumption should not be less than 7 percent of calories. 
  • If people consume high fat, then the cholesterol level of a person increases in arteries.
  • Examples are meat products (sausage, bacon, beef, hamburgers), pizza, dairy products (cheese, whole and reduced-fat milk, butter, and dairy desserts), cookies, grain-based desserts, oil of coconut, palm and kernel, and mixed fast food dishes. 

2. Unsaturated fats

  • Unsaturated fats, liquid at room temperature, are essential and non-essential fatty acids, which include linoleic acid, α-linolenic acid, EPA and DHA, GLA, and oleic acid. 
  • It is a nutrient from all vegetable oils except coconut and palm oil. 
  • It decreases LDL cholesterol levels and stabilizes heart rhythms. 

Types of unsaturated fats

There are two types of unsaturated fats. They are:

  1. Monounsaturated fats
  • It consists of omega-9 fatty acids.
  • Examples are oils (olive oil, peanut oil, canola oil), Avacados, nuts (almonds, hazelnuts, pecans), and seeds (pumpkin, sesame).
  1. Polyunsaturated fats
  • It consists of omega-3 fatty acids and omega-6 fatty acids. 
  • The three types of omega-3 fatty acids are as follows:
    • eicosapentaenoic acid (fish, shellfish, seafood) 
    • docosahexaenoic acid (fish, shellfish, seafood)
    • ɑ-linolenic acid (flax seed, soybean, walnut, rapeseed oil)
  • Examples are oils (safflower, sunflower, corn, soy), walnuts, flax seeds, fish, and canola oils.  
  • Omega-3 fatty acids are innocuous to our health because they help lower triglyceride levels, raise HDL (good) cholesterol, lower blood pressure, and decrease the risk of premature death.

3. Trans fats

  • Trans fats, unhealthy fats, are solid at room temperature. 
  • The source of trans fats in diets is partially hydrogenated oil. It is satisfying for taste; however, it harms the health of our bodies. 
  • It can raise LDL cholesterol levels and lower HDL (good) cholesterol levels in the blood.
  • In addition, Experts should use trans fat in limited amounts in packaged foods and restaurants.
  • Examples are processed foods (margarine spreads, peanut butter, chips, crackers, cookies, non-dairy creamer, pre-prepared cake frostings, vegetable shortening, candy bars), pie crusts, pizza dough, cookie dough, pastries, donuts, pies, fried and fast foods (pastries, breakfast foods, biscuits), naturally occurring trans fats (beef, lamb, butter, milk, cheese, yogurt).

Functions of fats

  1. It promotes fat-soluble vitamin absorption.
  2. It can insulate and control the body temperature.
  3. It helps to protect the body’s organs by cushioning.
  4. It stabilizes the heart rhythms and lowers the risk of heart attack and stroke.
  5. It improves the skin and hair health.
  6. It absorbs vitamins A, D, E, and K.
  7. It reduces inflammation.
  8. It helps to preserve brain health.
  9. It decreases the risk of cancer and arterial stiffness.
  10. It helps to decrease the clotting time of blood.
  11. It helps to increase the HDL levels. 
  12. It helps to improve insulin resistance syndrome status.

Excess intake of fats

  1. It can cause obesity.
  2. It can cause atherosclerosis and CHD due to high LDL levels and high triglycerides in the blood.
  3. It can cause diabetes mellitus type II and gallbladder stones.

Water

People should consume 2.7 to 3.7 liters/day of water.

Functions of Water

It is necessary for our health and has many functions, such as:

  1. It helps in digestion, absorption, circulation, and excretion processes.
  2. It acts as a solvent for body constituents.
  3. It regulates body temperature.
  4. It helps in the lubrication of the moving body parts.
  5. It carries nutrients.

What are Micronutrients?

  • The word micro means small. Human requires micronutrients in small quantities. 
  • Each micronutrient has its specific pathways and functions. 
  • Examples are fortified cereals and rice.
  • There are two forms of micronutrients. They are minerals and vitamins.

Minerals

  • Minerals are essential inorganic elements. 
  • It is also necessary for nutrients that include iron, potassium, sodium, Calcium, magnesium, zinc, manganese, copper, selenium, etc. 
  • If people do not consume in a proper amount, it may lead to diseases. 
  • So, doctors may recommend supplements. 
  • Examples are meat, fish, milk, cheese, green leafy vegetables, and legumes.

They are of two forms:

a. Major minerals 

b. Trace elements

Major minerals

  • The major minerals are Calcium, phosphorus, sodium, chlorine, potassium, magnesium, and sulfur.
  • According to the 2015–2020 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, adults should consume 4700 mg/day of potassium. Examples are avocados, coconut water, bananas, dried fruits, squash, beans, and lentils.
  • Sodium, a popular condiment, is a table salt. People should consume less than 2,300 mg/day of sodium or one teaspoon.
  • Calcium is essential to our body. Adults should consume 1000 mg/day of Calcium, while women (aged 51 and over) should consume 1200 mg/day. Examples are dairy products, tofu, legumes, and green, leafy vegetables.
  • Adults should consume 700 mg/ day of phosphorous. Examples are dairy products, salmon, lentils, and cashews.
  • Females should consume 320 mg/day of magnesium, while males should consume 420 mg. Examples are nuts, spinach, and beans.
  • Copper (900 mcg/day): beef liver, oysters, potatoes, mushrooms, sesame seeds, and sunflower seeds

Trace elements

  • The trace elements are iron, zinc, iodine, selenium, manganese, chromium, and copper.
  • Females should consume 8 mg/day of zinc, while males need 11 mg/day. Examples are fortified cereals, oysters, beef, and baked beans. 
  • Adults should consume 8 mg/day of iron. During reproductive years, females should consume 18 mg/day of iron. Examples are fortified cereals, lentils, beef liver, spinach, and tofu.
  • Males should consume 2.3 mg/day of manganese, while 1.8 mg/day for females. Examples are Mussels, hazelnuts, brown rice, chickpeas, and spinach.
  • Selenium (55 mcg/day): Brazil nuts, spinach, oatmeal, baked beans, tuna, ham, and enriched macaroni
  • Chromium: whole grains, cheese, legumes, yeast

Functions of Minerals

  1. Potassium helps to maintain/ perform the kidneys, the heart, the muscles, and the nerves properly. 
  2. Sodium helps to maintain nerve and muscle function. It also regulates fluid levels in the body. 
  3. Calcium helps to form bones and teeth. It helps in the muscle relaxation and contraction. It helps to release hormones and supports the nervous system and cardiovascular health. It helps in enzymatic functions.
  4. Phosphorous is good for bones and teeth. It helps in acid-base balance. It aids in energy metabolism.
  5. Magnesium helps to regulate blood pressure and produce proteins, bones, and DNA. It helps to regulate heartbeats. 
  6. Zinc helps to maintain the immune system and heal wounds.
  7. Iron helps to form red blood cells, connective tissues, and hormones. It helps to transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissues and muscles.
  8. Manganese helps in blood clotting and produces energy. It maintains the immune system.
  9. Copper helps to form connective tissues and blood vessels. It helps in lipid metabolism.
  10. Selenium prevents cell damage. It acts as an antioxidant property. It reduces the risk of cancer. It prevents HIV replication.
  11. Chromium helps to activate enzymatic action. It removes the glucose from the blood.

High intake and low intake effects of minerals

  1. High potassium intake may cause kidney diseases, while low potassium intake may cause high blood pressure, stroke, and kidney stones.
  2. Low Sodium intake may cause hyponatremia, while high sodium intake may cause high blood pressure, stroke, and cardiovascular disease.
  3. High intake of Calcium may cause constipation and kidney stones. Low intake may lead to weak bones and teeth.
  4. Not enough phosphorus intake may cause bone disease, anemia, and burning sensations in the skin. It might affect appetite and muscle strength.
  5. Low magnesium intake may cause weakness, nausea, tiredness, and restless sleep conditions, while high intake may cause heart problems.
  6. Low zinc intake may cause hair loss, skin sores, and diarrhea, while high intake may cause digestive problems and headaches.
  7. Low iron intake may cause iron deficiency, such as anemia disease and weakness, while high iron intake may cause digestive problems.
  8. Low manganese intake may cause weak bones in children, skin rashes, and mood swings, while high manganese intake may cause tremors and muscle spasms.
  9. High copper intake may cause liver damage, abdominal pain, nausea, and diarrhea, while low intake may cause tiredness, patches of light skin, and high cholesterol.
  10. High selenium intake may cause diarrhea, irritability, skin rashes, and brittle hair or nails, while low intake may cause heart disease, infertility in men, and arthritis.
  11. Low chromium intake can cause CNS problems and DM aggravation.

Vitamins

Vitamins, organic compounds, are essential nutrients to our body.

There are two types of vitamins: water-soluble vitamins and fat-soluble vitamins.

Fat-soluble vitamins

It includes Vitamins A, D, E, and K.

a. Vitamin A: 

  • Adults should consume 600μg of retinol or 2400 μg of beta-carotene. 
  • Vitamin A is present in two forms: retinol (liver, meat, fatty fish, eggs, and milk fat) and beta-carotene (dark green vegetables and bright yellow fruits). 

b. Vitamin D: 

  • The two Vitamin D necessary in man are Vitamin D2 (Calciferol obtained from plant sterols and ergo sterols) and Vitamin D3 (Cholecalciferol present in animal fats and fish oils). 
  • Adults should consume 2.5 mcg of vitamin D. Sunlight provides vitamin D by converting body cholesterol to vitamin D. 
  • Examples are liver, egg yolk, butter, cheese, and some fish species.

c. Vitamin E: 

  • It is also known as tocopherol. It is an anti-sterility vitamin. 
  • Adults should consume 10mg/day of vitamin E. 
  • Examples are vegetable oils, hydrogenated fats, dark green leafy vegetables, nuts, whole grains, legumes, and polyunsaturated fatty acids-rich foods.

d. Vitamin K: 

  • It is an antihaemorrhagic vitamin. It is a cofactor of enzyme and is called prothrombin.
  • They are of two types: Phylloquinone- K1 (fresh and dark green leaf vegetables) and Manaquinone- K2 (formed by the bacteria synthesis in the intestines). 
  • Examples are fresh and dark green leaf vegetables, fruits, cabbage, cauliflower, cow milk) 

Water-soluble vitamins

It includes Vitamins B group (B1, B2, B3, B12, folic acid) and Vitamin C.

  1. Vitamin B1: 
  • It is also called Thiamine, which is essential for carbohydrate utilization. Adults should consume 1-2 Mg/day of vitamin B1. 
  • Examples are High sources (unmilled cereals, pulses, nuts) and poor sources (meat, fish, eggs, liver, dark green leafy vegetables, fruits, dried yeast, milk).
  1. Vitamin B2:
  • It is also called riboflavin. Adults should consume 1-2 mg/day. 
  • Examples are milk and milk products, eggs, liver, green leafy vegetables, wheat, millet, and pulses.
  1. Vitamin B3: 
  • It is also called niacin. Adults should consume 20 mg/day. 
  • Examples are whole grain cereals, nuts, pulses, meat, liver, chicken, dried yeast, ground nuts, and maize.
  1. Vitamin B6: 
  • It is also called pyridoxine. 
  • Adults should consume 2 mg/day of pyridoxine, while 2.5 mg/day during pregnancy and lactation.
  1. Vitamin B12: 
  • Vitamin B12 is a complex organo-metallic compound with a cobalt atom. 
  • Examples are liver, eggs, fish, and milk.
  1. Folic acid: 
  • Adults should consume 100 micrograms/day. 
  • Examples are green leaves, vegetables, liver, egg, pulses, cereals, nuts, whole grains, and oil seeds.
  1. Vitamin C: 
  • It is also called ascorbic acid and is sensitive to heat. 
  • Adults should consume 40mg/day of vitamin C. 
  • Examples are citrus fruit, tomatoes, green leafy vegetables, cabbage, germinating legumes, liver, and kidney.

Functions of Vitamins

  1.  Vitamin A is necessary for normal vision because it produces retinal pigments. It helps in the skeletal growth. It prevents bronchial cancers. It acts as an anti-infective agent. It helps to rebuild glandular epithelial tissues.
  2.  Vitamin D helps to promote intestinal absorption of calcium and phosphorous in the intestine. It also stimulates normal mineralization, enhances bone reabsorption, and affects collagen maturation.  
  3. Vitamin D helps to improve bones. It aids in the absorption of Calcium in the body.
  4. Vitamin E has an antioxidant property. It helps to reduce the degenerative disease risk. It prevents lipid oxidation and maintains cell integrity.
  5. Vitamin K prevents blood clotting. It helps in the liver functioning.
  6. Vitamin B1 helps in the functioning of the nervous system. It helps in carbohydrate metabolism.
  7. Vitamin B2 helps to form energy. It helps to synthesize glycogen and erythropoiesis.
  8. Vitamin B3 helps in DNA synthesis and repair. It helps to control blood cholesterol and lipids.
  9. Vitamin B6 helps in the amino acids, fats, and carbohydrates metabolism. 
  10. Vitamins B12 helps to synthesize DNA and fatty acids.        
  11. Vitamin C helps to oxidize tissue. It helps to form collagen.  
  12. Folic acid helps to synthesize DNA. It helps to make red blood cells.                                      

Deficiency of Vitamin 

  1. Vitamin A may cause night blindness, conjunctival xerosis, Bigot spots, keratomalacia, corneal ulcer, and corneal xerosis.
  2. Vitamin D causes rickets and osteomalacia. It may cause degeneration of bones.
  3. Vitamin E may decrease the red blood cells and increase creatine excretion, indicating muscle damage.
  4. Vitamin K may cause internal hemorrhage and uncontrolled bleeding.
  5. Vitamin B1 leads to beriberi, Wernick’s encephalopathy.
  6. Vitamin B2 may cause confined skin, scaly dermatitis, circumcorneal vascularization, and keratitis.
  7. Vitamin B3 may cause gastrointestinal disorders, diarrhea, loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, neurological manifestation, memory loss, and pigmented scaly skin.
  8. Vitamin B12 can cause megaloblastic anemia problems and demyelinating neurological lesions in the spinal cord.
  9. Vitamin C can cause scurvy and poor wound healing.

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