A plant flower is a highly modified shoot that serves the purpose of sexual reproduction. It features a condensed axis known as the thalamus or torus. The shoot produces flowers only after the plant has undergone vegetative growth. Flowers can be found in the axils of leaves or on a specialized flowering branch called the peduncle or floral axis. Each flower has a stalk, or pedicel, that culminates in a broad surface called the thalamus or torus.
This structure supports four distinct types of whorls of floral leaves: Calyx, Corolla, Androecium, and Gynoecium.
Sepals and petals do not play a role in the formation of fruit and seeds so they are also known as non-essential floral parts. The essential floral parts, stamens, and carpels are responsible for fruit and seed development.
Parts of a flower
Calyx
Typically green and leaf-like, serves to protect the developing flower bud before it opens. Calyx is made up of sepals.
Corolla
Often brightly colored or uniquely patterned, attracts pollinators through visual and scent cues. Corolla is made up of petals.
Androecium
These are the male reproductive organs of the flower and it is made up of stamens. Each stamen is made up of anther and filament.
Anther: This part produces pollen, which contains the male gametes.
Filament: A slender stalk that supports the anther.
Gynoecium
This is the female reproductive organ and it is made up of carpels or pistils. Each carpel is made up of stigma, style, and ovary.
Stigma: The sticky surface that captures pollen.
Style: A tube-like structure that guides pollen from the stigma to the ovary.
Ovary: This contains ovules, which develop into seeds once fertilized.
Types of Plant Flowers
a) Based on Completeness
Complete Flowers: These flowers have all four main parts i.e. sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels. Examples include the Rose and the Lily.
Incomplete Flowers: These flowers are missing one or more of the four essential parts. An example is Corn, which lacks petals.
b) Based on Reproductive Organs
Perfect Flowers: These contain both male and female reproductive structures, allowing for self-pollination or cross-pollination. Examples are Hibiscus and Tomato.
Imperfect Flowers: These have either stamens or carpels, but not both. Examples include Squash and Willow.
c) Based on Plant Distribution
Monoecious Plants: These plants produce both male and female flowers on the same individual. Examples are Maize and Cucumber.
Dioecious Plants: These have separate male and female flowers on different plants. Examples include Holly and Date Palm.
d) Based on Pollination Methods
Self-Pollinating Flowers: These can transfer pollen from the anther to the stigma of the same flower or another flower on the same plant. An example is Pea plants.
Cross-Pollinating Flowers: These depend on external agents like insects, wind, or water for pollen transfer. Examples include Apple and Sunflower.
e) Based on Symmetry
Actinomorphic Flowers (Radial Symmetry): Actinomorphic flowers can be split into identical halves from any plane that passes through the center. Some examples include lilies, buttercups, roses, and sunflowers.
Zygomorphic Flowers (Bilateral Symmetry): These can only be divided into equal halves from a single plane. Examples include Orchid and Pea.
Acyclic or Asymmetric: A flower that cannot be split into two halves along any vertical line. Example – Opuntia.
f) Based on the Number of Floral Parts
Dicot Flowers: Typically, these have floral parts in multiples of four or five. Examples are Sunflower and Rose.
Monocot Flowers: Typically, these have floral parts in multiples of three. Examples include Lily and Orchid.
g) Based on Ovary Position
Hypogynous Flowers: The ovary is located above the other floral components (superior ovary). Examples include Mustard and China Rose.
Perigynous Flowers: The ovary is situated in the center, with the floral parts arranged around it (half-inferior ovary). Examples are Peach and Rose.
Epigynous Flowers: The ovary is found below the floral parts (inferior ovary). Examples include Apples and Cucumber.
Merosity in Flowers
Flowers have a basic number of floral appendages arranged in whorls, a concept known as merosity. Isomery occurs when the number of floral leaves in each whorl is the same. Based on the consistent basic number of floral leaves, flowers can be categorized as follows:
Bimerous: Floral leaves are two or in multiples of two in each whorl, such as in the Ixora “flame of the woods”.
Trimerous: Floral leaves are three or in multiples of three, like in Allium and poppies.
Tetramerous: Floral leaves are four or in multiples of four. Example – Brassica juncea.
Pentamerous: Floral leaves are five or in multiples of five. Example – Hibiscus
Heteromery refers to the variation in the number of floral leaves across different whorls of a flower, where the number of carpels may be fewer than the number of other floral leaves. For instance, a flower with 5 sepals, 5 petals, and 5 stamens but only two carpels is termed heteromerous.
Variations in the Forms of Floral Parts
Calyx: The outermost whorl consists of green leaf-like structures known as sepals. Sepals primarily serve to protect the other floral parts while in bud form.
When sepals are colored differently than green, they are referred to as petaloid. The sepal that aligns with the main axis of the flower is termed the odd sepal. Typically, this sepal is positioned posteriorly, but in the Leguminosae family and some other plant families, it can be found anteriorly.
Polysepalous refers to a calyx with free sepals, while gamosepalous describes a calyx with fused sepals.
Additional shapes of the calyx include:
Infundibuliform– Calyx is funnel-shaped, e.g. Atropa.
Bilabiate– It is differentiated into an upper and a lower lip, e.g. Ocimum.
Pappus– Calyx modified into hairy processes, e.g. Sonchus.
Saccate– Calyx is pouched, e.g. Brassica.
Gland dotted— featuring oily glands, e.g. Citrus.
Duration of Calyx Morphology of Flowering Plants Depending on their lifespan, calyx types can be categorized as:
- Caducous— falling off immediately after the flower opens, e.g. Poppy
- Deciduous— dropping at the time of flower wilting, e.g. Brassica
- Persistent— sepals that remain attached in the fruit, e.g., brinjal
Corolla– The corolla is the second whorl of a flower, made up of colorful floral leaves known as petals. These petals can be fragrant and may have nectaries at their base. They serve to protect the essential reproductive organs and attract pollinators. Greenish petals are referred to as sepaloid. There are two main types of corolla:
Polypetalous (Choripetalous) with free petals, and Gamopetalous (Sympetalous) with fused petals.
Types of Polypetalous Corolla include:
(i) Cruciform– characterized by four clawed or unguiculate petals arranged diagonally, resembling a cross, as seen in the family Cruciferae or Brassicaceae.
(ii) Caryophyllaceous– featuring five clawed or unguiculate petals with limbs that are horizontally bent, such as in carnations (Family- Caryophyllaceae).
(iii) Rosaceous– comprising five or more sessile or shortly clawed petals, like those of a rose (Family- Rosaceae).
(iv) Papilionaceous– consisting of five unequal or irregular petals arranged like a butterfly. The large posterior bilobed petal, known as the standard or vexillum, overlaps the two smaller lateral petals called wings or alae, which in turn overlap the two interior petals that are lightly fused to form a boat-shaped structure called the keel or carina, as seen in peas (Family- Papilionaceae).
Types of Gamopetalous Corolla include:
(i) Infundibuliform– funnel-shaped. Example- Pitunia.
(ii) Tubular– tube-like or cylindrical, such as the disc florets of sunflowers.
(iii) Rotate– featuring a flat and circular limb at right angles to a short tube or wheel-shaped structure. E.g. Solanum nigrum.
(iv) Bilabiate– two-lipped corolla, with one type (personate) having lips close together, and another (ringent) with lips wide open. Example- Antirrhinum.
(v) Ligulate– having a short narrow tube below but expanded above like a strap, as seen in the ray florets of sunflowers.
It’s important to note that the cruciform corolla is a defining feature of the family Cruciferae, while the papilionaceous corolla is characteristic of the family Fabaceae.
Aestivation– Aestivation refers to the arrangement of accessory floral organs, such as sepals or petals, about each other within the floral bud. There are several types of aestivation:
- Valvate: The edges of adjacent sepals or petals meet without overlapping, for example, Brassica.
- Twisted or contorted: One margin of a petal overlaps the margin of an adjacent petal, while the other margin is overlapped by another adjacent petal, as seen in the china rose.
- Imbricate: This involves irregular overlapping of petals. Types of imbricate aestivation include-
(a) Quincuncial– where two petals are external, two are internal, and the fifth petal has one margin external and the other internal.
(b) Ascending Imbricate– where the posterior petal is held inside by the upper margins of two lateral petals, which are then overlapped by the upper margin of two anterior-lateral petals.
(c) Descending Imbricate Vexillary– where the posterior petal is large and overlaps the two lateral petals, which in turn overlap the two anterior petals, as seen in peas.
Androecium: It forms the third whorl of a flower and consists of the male reproductive organ known as the stamen. Each stamen is considered a highly modified leaf, referred to as a microsporophyll. The stamen has a slender stalk called the filament and a knob-like structure at its tip known as the anther. Each fertile anther lobe contains two pollen sacs or microsporangia, which house numerous microspores or pollen grains (male spores). Each anther is made up of two lobes connected at the back by a sterile tissue called connective. Staminode: Sterile and undeveloped stamens are termed staminodes.
Bithecous: An anther with both lobes is referred to as bithecous.
Monothecous: An anther with a single lobe is called monothecous (Family – Malvaceae).
The fusion of one floral part with another dissimilar floral part is known as adhesion. Types of anthers based on adhesion-
Epipetalous: This term describes stamens that are fused with petals, for example. Example-Pitunia
Epiphyllous or Epitepalous: This refers to stamens fused with tepals or perianth. Example- Aspholedus
Types of Stamens based on filament length:
Polyandrous: Stamens are free and can be equal or unequal in length.
Didynamous: This describes two common types of unequal stamens, consisting of two long and two short stamens, such as in tulsi.
Tetradynamous: This type has four long stamens and two short ones, as seen in mustard. Example- Brassica
The fusion of one floral part with another similar floral part is called cohesion. Sometimes, stamens are united with each other, which can occur in three types:
- Adelphous: Here, only the filaments are fused while the anthers remain free. All stamens form a single group- Monadelphous, as seen in Hibiscus. Stamens can form two groups in Diadelphous, such as in Pea, or many groups in Polyadelphous such as Citrus.
- Syngenesious or Synantherous: In this type, the stamens are fused only at the anthers, while the filaments remain separate. The fused anthers create a ring around the gynoecium, as seen in sunflowers.
- Synandrous: Here, the stamens are fused along their entire length, including both the filaments and anthers. Stamens that are shorter than the corolla are referred to as inserted, while those that extend beyond the corolla are called exserted. Example Cucurbita.
The anthers can be attached to the filaments in several ways:
- Basifixed or Innate: The filament is connected to the base of the anther. Example Brassica
- Adnate: The filament runs the entire length of the anther or merges with the connective. Example- Ranunculus
- Dorsifixed: The filament is attached to the back side of the anther. Example- Citrus
- Versatile: The filament is connected at the midpoint of the connective, allowing the anther to swing freely. Example- Grasses.
Gynoecium: It is the fourth and innermost whorl, consisting of the female reproductive organs of the flower known as carpels. Each carpel is essentially a highly modified leaf, referred to as a megasporophyll. The carpels can either be free or fused. A unit of the gynoecium is termed a pistil. The pistil has a flask shape and is made up of three distinct parts: a swollen ovary at the base, a stalk-like style, and a terminal receptive part called the stigma. A pistil that is sterile and undeveloped is known as a pistillode.
The ovary contains one or more chambers or loculi. Depending on the number of loculi, the ovary can be classified as follows:
Unilocular: One loculus or chamber, e.g. pea.
Bilocular: Two locules or chambers, e.g. Brassica.
Trilocular: Three locules or chambers, e.g. Asparagus.
Tetralocular: Four locules or chambers, e.g. Ocimum.
Pentalocular: Five locules or chambers, e.g. Hibiscus.
Multilocular: More than five locules, e.g. ladyfinger.
The style is a narrow, thin, thread-like structure that elevates and supports the stigma above the ovary. The style may be unbranched or branched. The stigma, which is the terminal receptive part of the pistil, can have various shapes, such as linear, fid, lobed, capitate, feathery, hairy, or sticky.
Types of gynoecium based on the number of carpels include:
Monocarpellary: Gynoecium with a single carpel; example- pea.
Bicarpellary: Gynoecium with two carpels; example- tomato.
Tricarpellary: Gynoecium with three carpels; example- onion.
Polycarpellary: Gynoecium with more than three carpels. Example- rose.
Types of gynoecium based on the condition (fused/free) of carpels are:
Apocarpous: When carpels are free, the gynoecium is termed apocarpous (e.g., Ranunculus) Syncarpous: When carpels are fused, it is referred to as syncarpous, (e.g., Hibiscus )
Placentation– Placentation refers to the arrangement or distribution of the placenta within the ovary. Types of placentation-
- Marginal: This type is seen in monocarpellary, and unilocular ovaries. A single longitudinal placenta with one or two alternate rows of ovules is located along the wall of the ovary, known as the ventral suture, for example, in Pea (Family – Leguminosae).
- Parietal: This occurs in the bicarpellary or multicarpellary, syncarpous, unilocular ovaries. Here, two or more longitudinal placentae develop along the wall of the ovary, with the number of placentae corresponding to the number of fusing carpels. Example- Brassica.
- Axile: Found in the bicarpellary or multi carpellary, syncarpous ovaries with two or more loci, the placentae are located in the central region where the septa meet, forming an axile column that bears ovules. Example Datura,
- Basal: This type occurs in monocarpellary or syncarpous pistils with unilocular ovaries, featuring a single placenta at the base, typically with one ovule, as seen in Sunflower.
- Free Central: Present in polycarpellary and syncarpous pistils with unilocular ovaries, the ovules are arranged around a central column that is not connected to the ovary wall by any septum, for example, in Primula.
- Superficial: This occurs in both monocarpellary and syncarpous pistils, where the ovules are borne on placentae that develop around the inner surface of the ovary, including any present septa. Example- Nymphaea.
How Does the Plant Flower Grow?
Seed Germination: The process starts when a seed takes in water (imbibition), which activates enzymes that break down stored nutrients. The radicle (the embryonic root) is the first to emerge, securing the plant in the soil.
Vegetative Growth: The shoot system, which includes the hypocotyl (the stem) and cotyledons (the seed leaves), begins to grow. During this phase, the plant experiences cell division and elongation, leading to the formation of roots, stems, and leaves.
Initiation of Flowering: Environmental factors like light duration (photoperiodism) and temperature (vernalization) signal the plant to shift from vegetative to reproductive growth. The shoot apical meristem transforms into floral meristems.
Flower Bud Formation: Guided by floral homeotic genes, the flower organs develop in a specific order: sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels.
Pollination and Fertilization: The mature flower undergoes pollination, where pollen grains are transferred from the anther to the stigma. After successful fertilization occurs in the ovary, the ovules develop into seeds.
Seed and Fruit Development: The fertilized ovary matures into a fruit, which helps in seed dispersal. The seeds then mature and eventually disperse, continuing the reproductive cycle.
Functions of Plant Flowers
Flowers play several crucial roles in a plant’s life cycle:
Reproduction: The main purpose of flowers is to facilitate sexual reproduction through processes like pollination and fertilization.
Attracting Pollinators: Features such as petals, nectar, and scent are designed to attract pollinators, including bees, birds, and butterflies.
Seed and Fruit Formation: Following fertilization, flowers transform into fruits that contain seeds.
Genetic Variation: Cross-pollination promotes genetic diversity, resulting in stronger and more adaptable plant populations.
Aesthetic and Ecological Roles: Flowers enhance ecosystem health by providing nourishment for pollinators and fostering biodiversity.
How Flowers Make Seeds?
The process of seed formation involves several scientific steps:
Pollination: Pollen grains from the anther reach the stigma through either self-pollination or cross-pollination.
Pollen Tube Formation: When a pollen grain lands on the stigma, it germinates and forms a pollen tube that grows down the style to the ovary.
Fertilization: Male gametes travel through the pollen tube to merge with the female egg cells (ovules) in the ovary, resulting in the formation of a zygote.
Embryo Development: The zygote undergoes cell division, developing into an embryo within the seed.
Seed Maturation: The ovule changes into a mature seed, which contains stored nutrients and a protective outer layer.
Fruit Formation: The ovary typically enlarges, becoming a fruit that helps with seed dispersal.
Once the seeds are dispersed, they can germinate under suitable conditions, allowing the plant’s life cycle to continue.
How Flowers Attract Pollinators?
Flowers have developed a range of adaptations to draw in pollinators, which is crucial for successful pollination and fertilization. Various pollinators, including bees, butterflies, birds, bats, and even the wind, play a role in shaping these adaptations. The main strategies include:
Coloration and Visual Signals– Flowers display bright and varied colors to attract particular pollinators. Bees are especially attracted to blue and yellow flowers, while hummingbirds are drawn to red and orange shades. Some flowers feature ultraviolet markings (nectar guides) that help insects locate the nectar.
Fragrance and Scent Production– Flowers with sweet fragrances entice bees and butterflies, while strong, musky scents attract nocturnal pollinators like moths and bats. Certain flowers emit their scent only at specific times to align with the activity patterns of their pollinators.
Nectar and Food Rewards– Flowers generate nectar, a sugary liquid that serves as nourishment for pollinators. Some plants also provide additional food sources, such as pollen, which is rich in proteins and essential nutrients.
Shape and Structural Adaptations– Tube-shaped flowers are designed for long-tongued pollinators like hummingbirds and butterflies. Wide, open flowers with easily accessible pollen are ideal for bees and beetles. Trap-like structures, such as those found in orchids, temporarily capture pollinators, ensuring effective pollen transfer.
Mimicry and Deception– Certain flowers imitate the appearance of female insects, deceiving males into attempting to mate with them (pseudocopulation), which results in pollen transfer. Others produce the scent of decaying meat to attract flies for pollination.
Timing of Blooming– Flowers time their blooming to coincide with the activity patterns of their main pollinators. Night-blooming flowers, like jasmine, are tailored for nocturnal pollinators such as moths and bats.
By employing these strategies, flowers significantly improve their chances of pollination, leading to fertilization and seed production, which is vital for the survival of their species.
Ways to Keep Plant Flowers Healthy
Provide adequate water– Make sure to water your plants regularly to avoid dehydration, but be careful not to overwater, as this can lead to root rot. Watering in the early morning or late evening helps minimize evaporation.
Use nutrient-rich soil– Opt for well-draining soil that is rich in organic matter to support healthy growth. Incorporating compost or natural fertilizers can enhance soil fertility.
Expose to proper sunlight– Different flowers have unique light needs, so ensure they get the right amount. For instance, sun-loving flowers like roses require at least 6 hours of sunlight, while shade-loving plants need less.
Prune and deadhead– Remove any dead flowers and leaves to promote new growth and prevent diseases. Regular pruning also improves air circulation and enhances the overall look of the plant.
Protect against pests and diseases– Utilize natural predators, neem oil, or organic pesticides to keep harmful insects away. Regularly check your plants for signs of pest infestations and act quickly if you notice any issues.
Fertilize regularly– Use balanced fertilizers to provide essential nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Be cautious with the amount you use, as over-fertilization can be detrimental.
Mulching– Applying mulch helps retain moisture in the soil, suppress weeds, and regulate soil temperature. Organic mulches like wood chips or straw break down over time, enriching the soil.
Ensure proper air circulation– Avoid overcrowding your plants to lower the risk of fungal infections. Spacing them out allows for better airflow and helps reduce humidity-related diseases.
Plant Flower Adaptations
Flowers have developed a variety of adaptations to thrive in different environments, enhancing their chances of survival and reproduction. Here are some notable flower adaptations:
Xerophytic Adaptations (Desert Flowers)– These are thick, waxy cuticles that help reduce water loss. Deep root systems allow access to underground water sources. Small or absent leaves minimize transpiration. Blooming during cooler times, such as at night, helps conserve moisture.
Example: Cactus flowers (Opuntia) bloom at night to escape the extreme heat.
Hydrophytic Adaptations (Aquatic Flowers)- Air sacs enable flowers to float on water surfaces. Long, flexible stems help withstand water currents. Waxy coatings on petals repel water. Flowers are positioned above the water for effective pollination by insects or wind.
Example: Water lilies (Nymphaea) have floating leaves and flowers to enhance pollination.
Carnivorous Adaptations (Nutrient-Poor Soils)- Modified flowers, like those of the Venus flytrap and pitcher plants, trap and digest insects. They produce digestive enzymes to break down prey for essential nutrients. Example: Pitcher plants (Nepenthes) capture insects in their specialized leaves.
Seasonal Adaptations- Some flowers bloom only in certain seasons to take advantage of favorable environmental conditions. Perennial flowers have underground storage organs like bulbs or tubers to survive harsh seasons and regrow when conditions improve. Example: Tulips store nutrients in bulbs and bloom in the spring.
Pollination-Specific Adaptations- Brightly colored petals and nectar rewards attract specific pollinators. Strong fragrances lure nocturnal pollinators like moths and bats. Specialized structures, such as snapdragon flowers, require strong insects like bees to access their nectar.
Example: Orchids (Ophrys) use mimicry to attract their pollinators.
These adaptations ensure that flowers can reproduce effectively and sustain their species in diverse environments.
Flowers adaptations in changing seasons
Flowers adapt to the changing seasons by blooming at various times throughout the year, influenced by environmental factors such as temperature and daylight. In spring, we see bright blooms like tulips and daffodils; summer brings forth roses and hydrangeas; autumn showcases asters and marigolds; and in winter, many plants go dormant, although some, like poinsettias, may still flower depending on the climate. Essentially, plants react to seasonal changes by flowering, shedding leaves, or entering dormancy based on the time of year.
Seasonal triggers: Plants mainly sense seasonal shifts through changes in day length and temperature, which activate hormonal responses that lead to flowering.
Spring blooms: Early spring flowers such as crocus, daffodils, and tulips are typically vibrant and bloom as temperatures rise and daylight increases.
Summer profusion: In summer, many plants produce a wealth of flowers, including roses, peonies, and hydrangeas, often featuring larger blooms and a variety of colors.
Autumn transition: As days grow shorter and temperatures drop, flowers like asters, mums, and cosmos begin to bloom in rich fall hues, while some plants start to shed their leaves.
Winter dormancy: In colder regions, most plants enter a dormant stage during winter, losing their leaves and flowers, though a few, like winter-hardy blooms such as hellebores or poinsettias, may still thrive.
Common problems affecting flowers
Common issues that affect flowers include powdery mildew, leaf spot, botrytis blight (grey mold), aphids, root rot, rust, spider mites, thrips, verticillium wilt, and physical damage from handling, as well as problems related to improper growing conditions like excessive sunlight or inadequate air circulation.
Fungal diseases: Powdery mildew, botrytis blight, leaf spot, and rust are prevalent fungal diseases that can impact flowers, often showing up as spots or a powdery coating on leaves and petals.
Insect pests: Aphids, spider mites, and thrips are common insects that feed on flowers, leading to damage to leaves and buds.
Root issues: Root rot, a fungal infection that affects the root system, can result in wilting and stunted growth.
Environmental factors: Excessive sun exposure, poor air circulation, and improper watering practices can lead to various problems for flowers.
Physical damage: Careless handling of flowers during transport or pruning can result in physical harm to the blooms.
Fun facts about plant flowers
Flowers are not just beautiful; they possess fascinating traits that set them apart. Here are some intriguing and fun facts about flowers:
Oldest flower: The fossil of the oldest known flower, Archaefructus sinensis, dates back over 125 million years.
Largest flower: Rafflesia arnoldii, commonly known as the corpse flower, produces the largest bloom in the world, measuring up to three feet in diameter.
Smallest flower: Wolffia, or duckweed, produces the tiniest known flowers, which are barely visible to the naked eye.
Night-blooming flowers: Some flowers, such as the Queen of the Night (Selenicereus grandiflorus), bloom only at night and wither before sunrise.
Flowers can change colors: Certain flowers, like hydrangeas, can change color depending on the soil pH; acidic soils yield blue flowers, while alkaline soils produce pink ones.
Scentless pollination: While most flowers emit fragrances to attract pollinators, wind-pollinated flowers, like grasses and some trees, do not have scents.
Edible flowers: Many flowers, including marigolds, violets, and nasturtiums, are edible and often used in culinary dishes.
The stinky flower: The Titan Arum (Amorphophallus titanum) releases a foul odor reminiscent of rotting flesh to attract carrion flies for pollination.
Sunflowers track the sun: Young sunflower plants display heliotropism, meaning they turn their heads to follow the sun’s path throughout the day.
Conclusion
Flowers play a crucial role in plant reproduction and biodiversity. They function not only as reproductive organs but also as vital elements in ecological interactions. With their varied structures and adaptations, flowers attract pollinators, flourish in diverse environments, and adapt to seasonal changes.
By studying flowers, we gain a deeper appreciation for their importance in maintaining ecosystems and food production. Caring for and preserving plant flowers is essential for the survival of numerous species and contributes to the beauty of our natural surroundings.
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